University

A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master, and doctorate) in a variety of subjects. A university provides both tertiary and quaternary education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of masters and scholars". Below are some of the top university and college listings in the country. These college listings are intended to help you find college information for reference.

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Because of the above definition, there is some controversy regarding which is the world's oldest university. If we consider the original and proper meaning of the word (from the latin "universitas": a corporation of students), then universities are a typical medieval European phenomenon and the oldest university is the University of Bologna in northern Italy (founded in 1088 and known as "Alma Mater Studiorum"). Nevertheless, if we consider the wider and vaguer meaning of university as a higher education institution, then the oldest university could be Plato's Academy or even Shangyang, which may have originated before the 21st century BC in China. Other candidates are Takshashila, Nalanda, Ratnagiri University, Al-Azhar University and the University of Magnaura, even if it's doubtful whether it's possible to extend the validity of a concept beyond its historical and geographical limits.

Students at Takshashila University, founded in Taxila (Ancient India) from around the 7th century BC, were given academic titles after graduating from one of its many courses. Nalanda University, founded in Bihar (India) from around the 5th century BC, also gave academic titles to its graduates, while also offering post-graduate courses. A third university whose ruins were only recently excavated was Ratnagiri University in Orissa. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo (Egypt) in the 10th century, offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, and is usually regarded as the first full-fledged university.

The ancient cities of Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Kanchipura in ancient India were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted thousands of Buddhist scholars from China, East Asia, Central Asia and South-East Asia, while also attracting many students from Persia and the Middle East.

The awarding of academic titles was not a custom of other educational institutions at the time but ancient institutions of higher learning also existed in China (Academies (Shuyuan)), Greece (the Academy), and Persia (Academy of Gundishapur)

The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopher Plato in the grove of Academos near Athens, taught its students philosophy, mathematics, and gymnastics, and is sometimes considered to resemble a university. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos (the home of Hippocrates), which had a medical school, and Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical institution was the Museum and Library of Alexandria.

Institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university also existed in Persia and the Islamic world prior to Al-Azhar University, most notably the Academy of Gundishapur.

In ancient China, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. It's reputed that an education system had been established before 21st century BC in China and a higher learning institution named Shangyang (Shang means high and Yang means school) had been established by Shun(2257 BC–2208 BC) during the Youyu period. The higher learning institution may have influenced the central imperial school, which was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty (1046–249 BC), Taixue in Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), and Guozijian in Sui dynasty. Nanjing University traces its history back to the imperial central school at Nanjing founded in 258 and the Imperial Nanjing University became the first comprehensive institution as a combination of education and research consisted of five faculties in 470. In a single dynasty there was only one imperial central school which was always located in the capital city and was the highest institution of learning of the nation. There was also another kind of institution of learning called Shuyuan since 8th century in Tang Dynasty. They were generally privately owned, and some were partly aided by governments. There were thousands of Shuyuan in China, and the degree of them varied from one to another. The advanced Shuyuan such as Yuelu Shuyuan and Bailudong Shuyuan can be taken as higher institutions of learning. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty (581–618) for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace.

In the Carolingian period, Charlemagne created a type of academy, called the palace school or scola palatina, in Aachen, a city in present-day Germany. Another school, nowadays embodied by the Brexgata University Academy, was founded in the year 798 by Carolingian leaders. It was situated near Noyon, a city in present-day France. From a broader perspective it were the scholars, the aristocrats, the clergymen, and Charlemagne himself, who shared a vision of educating the population in general, and of training the children of aristocrats in how to manage their lands and protect their states against invasion or squandering. These initiatives were a foreshadowing of the rise, from the 11th century onward, of universities in Western Europe.

The first European medieval university was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), founded in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century), University of Bologna (1088) in Bologna, Italy, and the University of Paris (c. 1100) in Paris, France, later associated with the Sorbonne. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See degrees of Oxford University for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities).

Universities are generally established by statute or charter. In the United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.

In Mali, West Africa, the celebrated Islamic University of Sankore (established 989 C.E.) had no central administration; rather, it was composed of several entirely independent schools or colleges, each run by a single master (scholar or professor). The courses took place in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. The primary subjects were the Qur’an, Islamic studies, law and literature. Other subjects included medicine and surgery, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, philosophy, language and linguistics, geography, history and art. The students also spent time in learning a trade and business code and ethics. The university trade shops offered classes in business, carpentry, farming, fishing, construction, shoe making, tailoring and navigation. It was claimed that the intellectual freedom enjoyed in Western Universities was inspired from universities like Sankore and Qurtuba (Muslim Spain) universities.

Memorizing the Qur’an and mastering Arabic language were compulsory to students. Arabic was a lingua franca of the university as well as the language of trade and commerce in Timbuktu. Except from a few manuscripts, which are in Songhay and other a’jami language, all the remaining 70,000 manuscripts are in Arabic. (Al-Furqan Heritage Foundation-London publishes a list of the manuscripts just in Ahmed Baba library in 5 volumes.)

Like all other Islamic universities, its students came from all over the world. Around the 12th century, it had an attendance of 25,000 students, in a city of 100,000 people. The university was known for its high standards and admission requirements

There is a growing movement, dubbed the University of the Third Age, "the U3A", which consists of small, independent and autonomous groups of retired scholars and others engaged in study for its own sake, of charitable status and without the award of any form of degree or qualification: a university in the ancient sense of a corporation of scholars. The scope of the U3A studies extends far beyond the walls of academe and embraces most of the physical as well as the mental disciplines appropriate to those in the "third age" of life.

Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees, a president (a rector in many countries), at least one vice president or vice-rector, and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded having generally a broader independence from state policies.

Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports administration, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centers, and bars. In addition, most major universities have their own libraries, sports centers, restaurants, students' unions, botanical gardens, astronomical observatories, university hospitals and clinics, computer labs, research laboratories, business incubators and many others.

The funding and organization of universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

The American university system is highly decentralized because of the U.S. Constitution's Tenth Amendment, which delegates all unenumerated powers, including education, "to the states, or to the people." Ergo, except for the United States service academies, the federal government does not directly regulate universities. Such a degree of autonomy in higher education is rare.

In light of the potential for self-governance to lead to lax standards, regional networks of universities have formed private accreditation agencies to vouch for the quality of their degrees. Since they judge the same entities that provide their funding, accreditation agencies have an inevitable conflict of interest. Regardless, each year the U.S. Secretary of Education publishes a list of accreditation agencies deemed reliable to judge educational standards. A degree without reputable accreditation might not be recognized as valid by outside parties, especially since the discovery of numerous "diploma mills."

List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning
The United States has both public universities and private universities. Some of the most prestigious private universities are in the Ivy League. Public universities, or state universities, with a similar level of rigor to Ivy League universities are called Public Ivies.

American high school students traditionally leave their hometown to go to college. Universities provide residence halls, so students can live on campus.

College admissions in the United States is competitive, to varying degrees. Each university has its own independent admissions system. The most common criteria considered are:

Score on a standardized test, such as the ACT or SAT.
Class rank and GPA in high school.
Admissions essay
Extracurricular activities
Minority or underprivileged background. See also: affirmative action.
Tuition is charged at all American universities. Students often use scholarships, student loans, or grants, rather than pay tuition out-of-pocket. In addition to tuition funds, public universities receive funding from individual states. All competitive universities, public and private, have endowments to provide a steady, reliable source of funding. Harvard University's endowment is the largest of any educational institution at $26 billion.

List of US colleges and universities by endowment
The Bachelor of Science and the Bachelor of Arts, both requiring around four years of study, are the two most common undergraduate degrees awarded by universities in the United States.

Intercollegiate athletics, organized by the National Collegiate Athletics Association, is very popular and very competitive in the United States, especially college football.

According to Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities, 17 of the top 20 universities in the world are in the United States. According to the Times Higher Education Supplement's world university rankings, 7 out of the top 10 universities in the world are in the United States.